Freud believed that dreams use symbols to represent unconscious thoughts and desires. These symbols can be objects, people, animals, or even abstract concepts. For example, a falling dream may symbolize anxiety or a desire for freedom, while a flying dream may symbolize a desire for escape or liberation. Freud developed a comprehensive list of dream symbols and their meanings, which he used to interpret his patients’ dreams.

Examples from Freud’s List of Dream Symbols and Their Meanings:

Falling: Anxiety, desire for freedom

Flying: Escape, liberation

Water: Emotions, the unconscious

Fire: Passion, destruction

House: Self, body

Snake: Penis, sexuality

Teeth: Aggression, castration anxiety

Money: Power, security

Car: Control, freedom

Food: Nurturance, love

Animals: Instincts, primitive desires

Death: Change, transformation

Best Quotes from the Book:

«The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind.»

«Dreams are the guardians of sleep.»

«The dream is a rebus that must be deciphered.»

«Every dream symbol has a definite meaning which can be discovered through analysis.»

«The dream-work is subject to a censorship which allows only distorted and disguised expressions of the latent dream-thoughts to reach consciousness.»

«Dreams serve a wish-fulfilling function, allowing us to experience forbidden desires or fears in a safe and symbolic manner.»

«The interpretation of dreams is an art, not a science.»

Criticism:

Freud’s theory of dreams has been criticized for its lack of scientific evidence, reliance on subjective interpretation, and limited applicability to all types of dreams. Some critics argue that dream interpretation is too vague and unreliable to be a valid method of psychological analysis.

Influence:

The Interpretation of Dreams has had a profound impact on the field of psychology and beyond. It laid the foundation for psychoanalysis and dream interpretation and inspired numerous theories and techniques in the field of mental health. It has also influenced literature, art, and popular culture. Freud’s ideas about dreams continue to be debated and discussed today, and his work remains a seminal contribution to our understanding of the human mind.

Interesting Facts About the Book:

Freud initially struggled to publish the book: Many publishers rejected The Interpretation of Dreams due to its controversial content and unconventional ideas.

It was Freud’s most important work: Freud himself considered The Interpretation of Dreams to be his most important and groundbreaking work.

It was initially met with skepticism: The book was initially met with skepticism and criticism from both the scientific community and the general public.

It has been translated into more than 30 languages: The Interpretation of Dreams has been translated into more than 30 languages and has sold millions of copies worldwide.

It is still studied and debated today: Freud’s theory of dreams continues to be studied and debated by psychologists and scholars today.

WORDLIST

royal road – королевский путь

repressed and hidden thoughts – подавленные и скрытые мысли

layers – слои

manifest content – явное содержание

latent content – скрытое содержание

anxiety-provoking thoughts – вызывающие беспокойство мысли

wish-fulfilling function – функция исполнения желаний

forbidden desires – запретные желания

desire for freedom – стремление к свободе

liberation – освобождение

a rebus that must be deciphered – ребус, который нужно расшифровать

distorted and disguised expressions – искажённые и замаскированные выражения

lack of scientific evidence – отсутствие научных доказательств

limited applicability – ограниченная применимость

vague – расплывчатый

valid method of psychological analysis – достоверный метод психологического анализа

unconventional ideas – нетрадиционные идеи

groundbreaking work – новаторская работа

Exercise 1.

Fill in the gaps with some words or phrases from the wordlist

1. Dreams are the __________ to the unconscious mind.

2. Dreams have two __________: the manifest content and the latent content.

3. The _____________ is the surface meaning of the dream.

4. The __________ is the underlying message of the dream.

5. Dreams can contain __________ that represent unconscious thoughts and desires.

6. Dreams serve a __________ by allowing us to experience forbidden desires in a safe way.

7. Freud’s theory of dreams has been criticized for its __________ and __________ applicability.

8. Some critics argue that dream interpretation is too __________ to be a valid method of psychological analysis.

9. Despite these criticisms, The Interpretation of Dreams remains a __________ work in the field of psychology.

Exercise 2

Are these statements TRUE or FALSE?

1. Freud believed that dreams are the «royal road» to the unconscious mind.

2. The latent content of a dream is its surface meaning.

3. Dream symbols can have specific meanings that can be discovered through analysis.

4. Freud’s theory of dreams has been universally accepted by the scientific community.

5. Dreams serve no purpose and are simply random brain activity.

6. The Interpretation of Dreams was Freud’s first published work.

7. Freud believed that dreams are always wish-fulfilling.

8. Some critics argue that dream interpretation is too vague to be a valid method of psychological analysis.

9. Dreams can help us to understand our repressed and hidden thoughts.

10. Freud’s ideas about dreams continue to be debated and discussed today.

UNIT 2

The Principles of Psychology by William James (1890)

Key Ideas:

Consciousness is a continuous stream of thought. James argued that consciousness is not a series of discrete mental states, but rather a continuous flow of experience. This stream of consciousness includes everything from our thoughts and feelings to our sensations and memories.

Habits are formed through association and are essential for social stability. James believed that habits are formed when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together. Over time, the association between the stimuli becomes so strong that one stimulus can trigger the other, even in the absence of the original stimulus. Habits are essential for social stability because they allow us to perform complex tasks without having to think about every step.

The self is a collection of experiences, not a fixed entity. James rejected the traditional view of the self as a fixed, unchanging entity. Instead, he argued that the self is a collection of our experiences, both past and present. This means that our self is constantly changing and evolving as we have new experiences.

Emotions are physiological responses to stimuli, not cognitive judgments. James’ theory of emotion, known as the James-Lange theory, challenged the traditional view that emotions are caused by cognitive judgments. Instead, James argued that emotions are simply physiological responses to stimuli. This means that we do not first think about something and then feel an emotion; rather, we feel an emotion and then think about it.

Instinct plays a significant role in human behavior. James believed that instinct, or innate behavior patterns, plays a significant role in human behavior. He argued that instincts are not simply fixed, unchangeable behaviors, but rather flexible patterns that can be modified by experience. Instincts provide us with a foundation for learning and adaptation, and they help us to survive and thrive in our environment.

Best Quotes:

«The stream of thought, which constitutes our conscious self, is sensibly continuous.»

«My thesis is that the essence of all consciousness is attention.»

«Habit is the flywheel of society, its most precious conservative agent.»

«Belief creates the fact.»

Criticism:

Some critics argue that James’ focus on observable behavior neglected the importance of internal mental processes.

His theory of emotion has been criticized for oversimplifying the complex relationship between physiology and psychology.

Influence:

«The Principles of Psychology» revolutionized the field of psychology, establishing it as an empirical science.

It introduced key concepts such as the stream of consciousness, habit, and the self.

Its pragmatic approach influenced the development of behaviorism and functionalism.

Interesting Facts:

James initially intended to write a short summary of psychology, but his work grew into a two-volume tome.

The book was praised for its clear and engaging writing style, which made complex psychological concepts accessible to a general audience.

James drew inspiration from both scientific research and his own personal experiences.

WORDLIST:

continuous stream of thought – непрерывный поток мыслей

discrete mental states – дискретные психические состояния

continuous flow of experience – непрерывный поток опыта

habits – привычки

two stimuli are repeatedly paired together – два стимула неоднократно сопряжены вместе

complex tasks – сложные задачи

fixed, unchanging entity – фиксированная, неизменная сущность

are caused by cognitive judgments – вызваны когнитивными суждениями

innate behavior patterns – врожденные модели поведения

thrive – процветать

the essence of all consciousness – сущность всего сознания

flywheel of society – маховик общества

precious – драгоценный

observable behavior – наблюдаемое поведение

neglect – пренебрегать

oversimplifying – чрезмерное упрощение

engaging writing style – увлекательный стиль письма

accessible to a general audience – доступный для широкой аудитории

Exercise 3

Fill in the gaps with some words or phrases from the wordlist.

1. Consciousness is a ______________ of experience.

2. Habits are formed when ______________.

3. James argued that emotions ______________.

4. James believed that the self is not a ______________.

5. James’ writing style was ______________.

6. ______________ play a significant role in human behavior.

7. James’ book was ______________ to a general audience.

8. Critics argue that James ______________ the importance of internal mental processes.

9. James’ theory of emotion has been criticized for ______________ the relationship between physiology and psychology.

UNIT 3

The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People by Stephen Covey (1989)

About the Book

This self-help classic outlines seven fundamental principles for personal and professional effectiveness.

The 7 Habits

Be Proactive: Take responsibility for your choices and actions, focusing on the things you can control.

Begin with the End in Mind: Establish clear goals and align your actions with them.

Put First Things First: Prioritize tasks based on importance and urgency, focusing on the most impactful activities.

Think Win-Win: Seek mutually beneficial solutions, considering the needs and interests of others.

Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood: Listen actively to others to truly comprehend their perspectives before sharing your own.

Synergize: Combine different perspectives and ideas to create groundbreaking solutions.

Sharpen the Saw: Continuously invest in personal and professional development to enhance your abilities.

Best Quotes

«The only person you are destined to become is the person you decide to be.»

«Sow a thought, reap an action; sow an action, reap a habit; sow a habit, reap a character; sow a character, reap a destiny.»

«Seek to understand, then to be understood.»

«Interdependence is a higher value than independence.»

«The main thing is to keep the main thing the main thing.»

Criticism

While widely acclaimed, the book has received some criticism:

Oversimplification: Critics argue that the habits are presented as a formulaic solution to complex personal challenges.

Idealistic: Some find the principles overly optimistic and difficult to implement in real-world situations.

Repetitiveness: The book’s emphasis on the seven habits can lead to redundancy and a lack of depth in discussing each one.

Influence

Despite the criticism, «The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People» has had a significant impact:

It has sold over 40 million copies worldwide.

It has been translated into over 40 languages.

It has been used as a training and leadership development tool in organizations and educational institutions.

Interesting Facts

The book was originally titled «The 7 Habits of 10% of the People Who Get Results.»

Covey’s inspiration for the book came from his studies of successful individuals in various fields.

The book has been listed on Fortune’s 100 Best Business Books of All Time.

WORDLIST:

personal and professional effectiveness – личная и профессиональная эффективность

take responsibility – брать на себя ответственность

establish clear goals – ставить четкие цели

align – согласовывать

importance and urgency – важность и срочность

the most impactful activities – наиболее важные действия

seek – искать

mutually beneficial solutions – взаимовыгодные решения

groundbreaking solutions – новаторские решения

sharpen the saw – оттачивать пилу

enhance your abilities – повышать свои способности

sow, reap – посей, пожнёшь

oversimplification – чрезмерное упрощение

formulaic solution – шаблонное решение

overly optimistic – чрезмерно оптимистичный

difficult to implement – трудно реализуемый

repetitiveness – повторяемость

redundancy – избыточность

lack of depth – недостаток глубины

despite the criticism – несмотря на критику

training and leadership development tool – инструмент для обучения и развития лидерских качеств

Exercise 4

Are these statements TRUE or FALSE?

1. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People is a self-help book.

2. The book outlines eight habits for personal and professional effectiveness.

3. The first habit is «Be Proactive.»

4. The book recommends prioritizing tasks based on urgency alone.

5. The fourth habit is «Think Win-Win.»

6. The book suggests that it is more important to be understood than to understand others.

7. The seventh habit is «Sharpen the Saw.»

8. The book has sold less than 10 million copies worldwide.

9. The book has been translated into over 40 languages.

10. The book has had no significant impact on the business world.

UNIT 4

The Ego and the Id by Sigmund Freud (1923)

Key Ideas:

1. The Three-Part Model of the Psyche:

Freud proposed that the human psyche is divided into three distinct structures:

Id: The Id is the primal, instinctual part of the personality. It is driven by the pleasure principle, seeking instant gratification of basic needs and desires. The Id operates on the primary process, which is illogical and irrational.

Ego: The Ego is the mediator between the Id and the external world. It balances the demands of the Id with the constraints of reality and the moral code. The Ego operates on the secondary process, which is logical and rational.

Superego: The Superego is the moral conscience, internalizing societal values and ethical principles. It strives for perfection and punishes the Ego for transgressions.

2. The Ego as Mediator:

Freud’s most significant contribution in this book is his detailed exploration of the Ego’s role as a mediator between the Id and Superego. The Ego constantly juggles the demands of the Id’s pleasure-seeking impulses with the Superego’s moral code. It must find ways to satisfy the Id’s desires while also adhering to the Superego’s moral standards. This balancing act can lead to anxiety and conflict, as the Ego struggles to maintain equilibrium.

3. Defense Mechanisms:

When the Ego is unable to resolve the conflict between the Id and Superego, it employs defense mechanisms to protect itself from anxiety. These defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes that distort or block threatening thoughts and feelings. Some common defense mechanisms include:

Repression: Unconsciously burying threatening thoughts and feelings.

Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts and feelings to others.

Rationalization: Providing logical explanations for irrational behavior.

4. The Oedipus Complex:

Freud believed that the Oedipus complex plays a crucial role in the development of the Superego. The Oedipus complex is a boy’s unconscious desire to possess his mother and kill his father, who he sees as a rival for his mother’s affections. This complex is eventually resolved through identification with the father, leading to the formation of the Superego.

5. The Death Drive:

Freud also introduced the concept of the death drive in this book. The death drive is an unconscious force that compels individuals towards self-destruction and aggression. Freud believed that the death drive is in constant conflict with the life instincts (Eros).

Best Quotes from the Book:

«The ego is… the mediator between the id and the external world.»

«The id knows no values, no good or evil, no morality.»

«The superego… is the heir to the Oedipus complex.»

Criticism:

Freud’s theory is based largely on clinical observations rather than empirical evidence.

His overemphasis on the role of childhood experience has been challenged by later research.

The theory is reductionist, attributing all behavior to unconscious drives.

Influence:

«The Ego and the Id» had a profound impact on psychology, shaping the field of psychoanalytic theory and therapy. It introduced the concept of three distinct psychic structures (Id, Ego, Superego), which became foundational in understanding human behavior.

Interesting Facts:

The book was originally published in German as «Das Ich und das Es.»

Freud wrote it at the age of 67, after suffering from throat cancer.

The three-part model of the psyche is often represented as three overlapping circles: Id, Ego, and Superego.

WORDLIST:

human psyche – человеческая психика

primal, instinctual part of the personality – изначальная, инстинктивная часть личности

pleasure principle – принцип удовольствия

instant gratification – мгновенное удовлетворение

basic needs and desires – основные потребности и желания

external world – внешний мир

constraints of reality and the moral code – ограничения реальности и морального кодекса

moral conscience – моральная совесть

internalizing societal values – усвоение общественных ценностей

transgressions – нарушения

pleasure-seeking impulses – стремления к получению удовольствия

maintain equilibrium – сохранять равновесие

unconscious mental processes – бессознательные психические процессы

distort or block threatening thoughts – искажать или блокировать угрожающие мысли

unacceptable thoughts and feelings – неприемлемые мысли и чувства

Repression – Вытеснение

Projection – Проекция

Rationalization – Рационализация

possess – обладать

rival for his mother’s affections – соперник за привязанность матери

self-destruction and aggression – саморазрушение и агрессия

heir – наследник

Exercise 5

Fill in the gaps with some words or phrases from the wordlist.

1. The Id is the __________, driven by the pleasure principle.

2. The Ego balances the demands of the Id with the __________.

3. The Superego is the __________, internalizing societal values.

4. Defense mechanisms are __________, which protect the Ego from anxiety.

5. Repression is the unconscious burying of __________.

6. Projection is the attribution of one’s own __________ to others.

7. The Oedipus complex is a boy’s unconscious desire to __________ his mother.

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