; some to plough ( ) and sow ( ), others to chop ( ) and split ( ); some to mow ( ) and reap ( ); one to score ( ) and hew ( ); two to frame ( ) and raise ( ). In his factory he has persons to card ( ), spin ( ), reel ( ), spool ( ), warp ( ), and weave ( ), and a clerk to deliver ( ) and charge ( ), to receive ( ) and pay ( ). They eat ( ), and drink ( ), heartily, three times a day; and as they work ( ) hard, and feel ( ) tired at night, they lay ( ) down, sleep ( ) soundly, and dream ( ) pleasantly; they rise ( ) up early to go ( ) to work ( ) again. In the morning the children wash ( ) and dress ( ) and prepare ( ) to go ( ) to school, to learn ( ) to read ( ), write ( ), and cipher ( )." All neuter or intransitive verbs!!

"The celebrated horse, Corydon, will perform ( ) on Tuesday evening in the circus. He will leap ( ) over four bars, separately, in imitation of the english hunter. He will lie ( ) down, and rise ( ) up instantly at the

word of command

. He will move ( ) backwards and sideways, rear ( ) and stand ( ) on his hind feet; he will sit ( ) down, like a Turk, on a cushion. To conclude ( ), he will leap ( ), in a surprising manner, over two horses."—

Cardell's Grammar.

The gymnastic is not a mountebank; he palms off no legerdemain upon the public. He will stretch a line across the room, several feet from the floor, over which he will leap ( ) with surprising dexterity. He will stand ( ) on his head, balance, ( ) on one foot, and swing ( ) from side to side of the room; lay ( ) crosswise, and sideways; spring ( ) upon his feet; bound ( ) upon the floor; dance ( ) and keel ( ) over with out touching his hands. He will sing ( ), play ( ), and mimic ( ); look ( ) like a king, and act ( ) like a fool. He will laugh ( ) and cry ( ), as if real; roar ( ) like a lion, and chirp ( ) like a bird. To conclude ( ): He will do all this to an audience of neuter grammarians, without either "

action

passion

," all the while having a "

state of being

," motionless, in the center of the room!!

What a lie! say you.

A lie?

I hope you do not accuse

of lying. If there is any thing false in this matter it all

lies

in the quotation, at the conclusion, from the standard grammar. If that is false, whose fault is it? Not mine, certainly. But what if I should

lie

( ), intransitively? I should tell no falsehoods.

But enough of this. If there is any thing irrational or inconsistent, any thing false or ridiculous, in this view of the subject, it should be remembered that it has been long taught, not only in common schools, but in our academies and colleges, as serious, practical truth; as the only means of acquiring a correct knowledge of language, or fitting ourselves for usefulness or respectability in society. You smile at such trash, and well you may; but you must bear in mind that grammar is not the only thing in which we may turn round and

laugh

( ) at past follies.

But I am disposed to consider this matter of more serious consequence than to deserve our

laughter

. When I see the rising generation spend months and years of the best and most important part of their lives, which should be devoted to the acquisition of that which is true and useful, studying the dark and false theory of language as usually taught, I am far from feeling any desire to laugh at the folly which imposes such a task upon them. I remember too distinctly the years that have just gone by. I have seen too many blighted hopes, too many wearisome hours, too many sad countenances, too many broken resolutions; to say nothing of corporeal chastisements; to think it a small matter that children are erroneously taught the rudiments of language, because sanctioned by age, or great names. A change, an important change, a radical change, in this department of education, is imperiously demanded, and teachers must obey the call, and effect the change. There is a spirit abroad in the land which will not bow tamely and without complaint, to the unwarranted dictation of arbitrary, false, and contradictory rules, merely from respect to age. It demands reason, consistency and plainness; and yields assent only where they are found. And teachers, if they will not lead in the reformation, must be satisfied to follow after; for a reformation is loudly called for, and will be had. None are satisfied with existing grammars, which, in principle, are nearly alike. The seventy-three attempts to improve and simplify Murray, have only acted

intransitively

, and accomplished very little, if any good, save the employment given to printers, paper makers, and booksellers.

But I will not enlarge. We have little occasion to wonder at the errors and mistakes of grammar makers, when our lexicographers tell us for sober truth, that to act,

to be in action

not to rest

, to be in

motion

, to

move

, is

v. n.

a verb neuter, signifying

no action

!! or

v. i.

verb intransitive, producing

no effects

; and that a "

neuter verb

expresses (active transitive verb)

a state of being

!! There are few minds capable of adopting such premises, and drawing therefrom conclusions which are rational or consistent. Truth is rarely elicted from error, beauty from deformity, or order from confusion. While, therefore, we allow the neuter systems to sink into forgetfulness, as they usually do as soon as we leave school and shut our books, let us throw the mantle of charity over those who have thoughtlessly (without

thinking thoughts

) and innocently lead us many months in dark and doleful wanderings, in paths of error and contradiction, mistaken for the road to knowledge and usefulness. But let us resolve to save ourselves and future generations from following the same unpleasant and unprofitable course, and endeavor to

reflect

the

light

which may

shine

upon our minds, to dispel the surrounding darkness, and secure the light and knowledge of truth to those who shall come after us.

Many philologists have undertaken to explain our language by the aid of foreign tongues. Because there are genitive cases, different kinds of verbs, six tenses, etc. in the Latin or Greek, the same distinctions should exist in our grammars. But this argument will not apply, admitting that other languages will not allow of the plan of exposition we have adopted, which we very seriously question, tho we have not time to go into that investigation. We believe that the principles we have adopted are capable of universal application; that what is action in England would be action in Greece, Rome, Turkey, and every where else; that "

like causes will produce like effects

" all the world over. It matters not by whom the action is seen, it is the same, and all who gather ideas therefrom will describe it as it appears to them, let them speak what language they may. But if they have no ideas to express, they need no language to speak. Monkeys, for aught I know to the contrary, can speak as well as we; but the reason they do not, is because they have nothing to say.

Let Maelzael's automaton chess-player be exhibited to a promiscuous multitude. They would all attempt a description of it, so far as they were able to gain a knowledge of its construction, each in his own language. Some might be unable to trace the

cause

, the moving

power

, thro all the curiously arranged

means

, to the

agent

who acted as prime mover to the whole affair. Others, less cautious in their conclusions, might think it a perpetual motion. Such would find a

first cause

short of the Creator, the great original of all things and actions; and thus violate the soundest principles of philosophy. Heaven has never left a vacuum where a new and

self

sustaining power may be set in operation independent of his ever-present supervision; and hence the long talked of

perpetual motion

is the vainest chimera which ever occupied the human brain. It may well appear as the opposite extreme of neuter verbs; for, while one would give no action to matter according to the physical laws which regulate the world, the other would make matter act of itself, independent of the Almighty. Be it ours to take a more rational and consistent stand; to view all things and beings as occupying a place duly prescribed by Infinite Wisdom,

acting

according to their several abilities, and subject to the regulation of the all-pervading laws which guide, preserve, and harmonize the whole.

If there is a subject which teaches us beyond controversy the existence of a Supreme Power, a Universal Father, an all-wise and ever-present God, it is found in the order and harmony of all things, produced by the regulation of Divine laws; and man's superiority to the rest of the world is most clearly proved, from the possession of a power to adapt language to the communication of ideas in free and social converse, or in the transmission of thought, drawn from an observation and knowledge of things as presented to his understanding.

There is no science so directly important to the growth of intellect and the future happiness of the child, as the knowledge of language. Without it, what is life? Wherein would man be elevated above the brute? And what is language without ideas? A sound without harmony—a shadow without a substance.

Let language be taught on the principles of true philosophy, as a science, instead of an arbitrary, mechanical business, a mere art, and you will no longer hear the complaint of a "

dry

cold

, uninteresting study." Its rules will be simple, plain, and easy; and at every step the child will increase in the knowledge of more than

words

, in an acquaintance with principles of natural and moral science. And if there is any thing that will carry the mind of the child above the low and grovelling things of earth, and fill the soul with reverence and devotion to the Holy Being who fills immensity with his presence, it is when, from observing the laws which govern matter, he passes to observe the powers and capabilities of the mind, and thence ascends to the Intellectual Source of

light

life

, and

being

, and contemplates the perennial and ecstatic joys which flow from the presence of Deity; soul mingling with soul, love absorbed in love, and God all in all.

LECTURE XI.

ON VERBS

The verb to be. – Compounded of different radical words. – Am. – Defined. – The name of Deity. –

. – Is. – Are. – Were, was. – Be. – A dialogue. – Examples. – Passive Verbs examined. – Cannot be in the present tense. – The past participle is an adjective.

We have gone through the examination of

neuter

and

intransitive

verbs, with the exception of the verb to be, which we propose to notice in this place. Much more might be said on the subjects I have discussed, and many more examples given to illustrate the nature and operation of actions as expressed by verbs, and also in reference to the

objects

of action; but I trust the hints I have given will be satisfactory. I am confident, if you will allow your minds to

think

correct

thoughts

, and not

suffer

them

to be

misled by erroneous teaching, you will arrive at the same conclusion that I have, viz. that all verbs depend on a

common principle

for their explanation; that they are alike active, and necessarily take an object after them, either expressed or understood, in accordance with the immutable law of nature, which teaches that like causes will produce like effects.

The verb to be, as it is called, is conjugated by the aid of six different words, in its various modes and tenses;

are

was

were

is unchanged, always in the indicative mood, present tense, agreeing with the

first

person singular.

is also unchanged, in the same mood and tense, agreeing with the

third

person singular.

Art

, in the singular, is the same as

are

in the plural.

Was

and

wast

, are the same as

were

and

wert

in meaning, being derived from the same etymon.

being

, and

been

, are changes of the same word.

was formerly extensively used in the indicative present, but in that condition it is nearly obsolete.

Were

was also used in the singular as well as plural, especially when coming before the agent; as, "were I to go, I would do your business." But it is now more common to have

was

correctly used in that case. But, as one extreme often follows another, people have laid

were

quite too much aside, and often crowd

was

into its place in common conversation; as "we

was

(were) there yesterday." "There

was

(were) five or six men engaged in the business." This error appears to be gaining ground, and should be checked before it goes farther.

The combination of these different words was produced by habit, to avoid the monotony which the frequent recurrence of one word, so necessary in the expression of thought, would occasion: the same as the past tense of

is made by the substitution of another word radically different,

went

, the past tense of

wend

wind

. "O'er hills and dales they

wend

their way." "The lowing herd

wind

slowly o'er the lea."

and

wend

convey to our minds nearly the same ideas. The latter is a little more poetical, because less used. But originally their signification was quite different. So with the parts of the verb to be. They were consolidated as a matter of convenience, and now appear in their respective positions to express the idea of being, life, or existence.

I have said this verb expresses the highest degree of action. I will now attempt to prove it. I should like to go into a labored and critical examination of the words, and trace their changes thro various languages, was it in accordance with the design of these lectures. But as it is not, I shall content myself with general observations.

I am.

This word is not defined in our dictionaries. It is only said to be "

the first person of to be

." We must look for its meaning some where else. It is a compound of two ancient words,

breath

, to

breathe

, life, to

live

light

, to

light

; and

, the

hand

, or to

hand

. It signifies to

vivify

sustain

, or

support

one's self in being or existence. In process of time, like other things in this mutable world, its form was changed, but the meaning retained. But as one person could not

vivify

live

another,

inflate

another's lungs, or breathe another's breath, it became restricted to the first person. It means, I

breathe breath

vivify myself

live life

, or

exercise

the power of

being

living

. It conveys this fact in every instance, for no person incapable of breathing can say

I am

. Let any person pronounce the word

ah-ma

, and they will at once perceive the appropriateness of the meaning here given. It is very similar to the letter

, and the pronoun, (originally

noun

, or the "

rough breathing

" in the Greek language.

is compounded with many words which express action done by the hand; as,

nufacture,

numit. It denoted any action or work done by the hand as the instrument; but, like other words, it gradually changed its import, so as to express any

effective

operation. Hence the union of the words was natural and easy, and

ahma

denoted

breathing

to live

or sustain life.

is a precarious letter in all languages that use it, as the pronunciation of it by many who speak the English language, will prove. It was long ago dropt, in this word, and after it the last

, so that we now have the plain word

It was formerly used as a noun in our language, and as such may be found in Exodus 3: 13, 14. "And Moses said unto God, Behold when I come unto the children of Israel and shall say unto them, The God of your fathers sent me unto you; and they shall say to me, What is his

name

? what shall I say unto them? And God said unto Moses, I am the I AM; and he said, Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me unto you." Chap. 6: 3.—"I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of God Almighty; but by my name Jehovah (I AM) was I not known unto them." The word

Jehovah

is the same as

. It is the name of the

self-existent

self-sustaining

Being, who has not only power to uphold all things, but to perform the still more sublime action of

upholding

sustaining himself

. This is the highest possible degree of action. Let this fail, and all creation will be a wreck. He is the

ever-living

uncontrolled

unfailing

unassisted

, and

never-changing

God, the Creator, Preserver, Alpha and Omega, the Beginning and End of all things. He is the

First Cause

of all causes, the

Agent

, original moving Power, and guiding Wisdom, which set in motion the wheels of universal nature, and guides and governs them without "variableness or the shadow of turning."

"I AM the first, and I, the last,

Thro endless years the same;

I AM is my memorial still,

And my eternal name."

Watts' Hymn.

Ask the Jews the meaning of this

neuter verb

in their language. They hold it in the most profound and superstitious reverence. After the captivity of their nation they never dared pronounce the name except once a year when the high priest went into the Holy of Holies, and hence the true pronunciation of it was lost. Unto this day they dare not attempt to utter it. In all their writings it remains in characters untranslated. When their Messiah comes they expect he will restore the pronunciation, and by it they shall be able to accomplish all things.

The Jews long preserved this name in Samaritan letters to keep it from being known to strangers. The modern Jews affirm that by this mysterious name, engraven on his rod, Moses performed the wonders recorded of him; that Jesus stole the name from the temple and put it into his thigh between the flesh and skin, and by its power accomplished the miracles attributed to him. They think if they could pronounce the word correctly, the very heavens and earth would tremble, and angels be filled with terror.

According to Plutarch the Greeks had the letters EI, thou art, engraven on the temple of Apollo at Delphi, which is the second person of Eimi,

I am

Plutarch says, "This title is not only

proper

but

peculiar to God

, because He alone is

being

; for mortals have no participation of

true being

, because that which

begins

and

ends

, and is constantly

changing

, is never

one

nor the

same

, nor in the same state. The deity on whose temple this word was inscribed was called Apollo, Apollon, from

negative and

pollus

many

, because God is one, his nature simple, and

uncompounded

."—

Vide, Clark's Com.

This motto was doubtless borrowed from the Jews, to whom it was given as the name of the God of Jacob. The same name you may see engraven on monuments, on pictures of the bible, on masonic implements, and in various places, untranslated.

Who can suppose that this word "expresses no action," when the very person incapable of it can not utter it, and no one else can speak it for him? It denotes the highest conceivable action applied to Deity or to man, and it is questionable philosophy which dares contradict this fact. The action expressed by it, is not changed, because it does not terminate on a foreign object. It remains the same. It is self-action.

He is.

This word is constructed from an old verb signifying

to stand forth

to appear

to show one's self

, and may be traced, I think, to the latin

to go

, and

exist

, to

exeo

to go from

; that is, our

being

existence

came

stood forth

from God. It is certainly a contraction from the old english

to exist

Ist

is the spelling still retained in the german and some other languages. It denotes self-action. One man does not

exist

another, but himself. He

keeps himself

in existence.

We are

thou are-est

arst

, or

art

Be not surprised when I tell you this is the same word as

air

, for such is the fact. It signifies to inhale air, to

air ourselves

, or

breathe air

. "God

breathed

into man the

breath of life

, and man became a

living soul

." The new born infant

inhales air

inflates its lungs

with

air

, and begins to live. We all know how essential

air

is to the preservation of life. No animal can live an instant without it. Drop a squirrel into a receiver from which all

air

has been extracted, and it can not live. Even vegetables will die where there is no air.

Light

is also indispensable to

life

and

health

Air

inhaled

and

exhaled

, and from it life receives support. The fact being common, it is not so distinctly observed by the careless, as tho it was more rare. But did you never see the man dying of a consumption, when the pulmonary or breathing organs were nearly decayed? How he labors for breath! He asks to have the windows thrown open. At length he

suffocates

and dies. Most persons struggle hard for

breath

in the hour of dissolving nature. The heaving bosom, the hollow gasp for

air

, tells us that the lamp of life is soon to be extinguished, that the hour of their departure has come.

When a person faints, we carry them into the

air

, or blow

air

upon them, that nature may be restored to its regular course. In certain cases physicians find it necessary to force air into the lungs of infants; they can after that

air

, themselves,

imbibe

drink in air

, or

inspirit

themselves with air. But I need not enlarge. Whoever has been deprived of air and labored hard for breath in a stifled or unwholesome air, can appreciate what we mean.

We were

;

he was

I have said before that these words are the same, and are used in certain cases irrespective of number. I have good authority for this opinion, altho some etymologists give them different derivations.

Were

wert

;

worth

werth

;

word

and

werde

, are derived from the same etymon and retain a similarity of meaning. They signify

spirit

life

energy

. "In the beginning was the

word

, and the

word

was with God." "By the

word

of his grace."

They were

," they

inspirited

themselves,

possessed

the life, vitality, or

spirit

, the Creator gave them, and having that spirit, life, or energy, under proper regulation, in due degree, they were

worthy

of the esteem, regard, sympathy, and good

word

of others.

To be.

This is considered the root of all the words we have considered, and to it all others are referred for a definition. Dictionaries give no definition to

are

was

, and

were

, all of them as truly principal verbs as

, and possessed of as distinct a meaning. It can hardly be possible that they should form so important a part of our language, and yet be incapable of definition. But such is the fact, the most significant words in our language, and those most frequently used, are undefined in the books.

Mr. Webster says to be signifies, "to exist, to

have

a real

state

existence

," and so say Walker and Johnson. Now if it is possible to "have

a state of being

without action or passion," then may this word express neutrality. But the very definition requires activity, and an object expressed. It denotes the

act of being

, or living; to

exercise

the powers of life, to

maintain

a position or rank in the scale of existent things.

The name of the action is

being

, and applies to the Almighty BEING who

exists

unchanged as the source of all inferior

beings

and things, whose name is

Jehovah

, I AM, the Being of beings, the Fountain of

light

life

, and

wisdom

is used in the imperative and infinitive moods correctly, by every body who employs language. "

here in ten minutes." "

Be it

far from thee." "I will

in Boston before noon." If there is any action in going from Providence to Boston at rail-road speed, in two hours, or before noon, it is all expressed by the verb

, which we are told expresses

no action

The teacher says to his scholars when out at play, "I want you

to be

in your seats in five minutes." What would they understand him to mean? that they should stand still? or that they should

change their state of being

from play in the yard, to a state of being in their seats? There is no word to denote such change, except the word

to be

off,

gone,

here,

there, are commands frequently given and correctly understood.

The master says to a bright little lad, who has well learned his grammar, "

here in a minute."

"Yes, sir, I will

there;" but he does not move.

here immediately."

"Yes, yes, I will

there."

"Don't you understand me? I say,

here instantly."

"Oh, yes, I understand you and will obey."

The good man is enraged. "You scoundrel," says he, "do you mean to disobey my orders and insult me?"

"Insult you and disobey you; I have done neither," replies the honest boy.

"Yes you have, and I will chastise you severely for it."

"No, master, I have not; I declare, I have not. I have obeyed you as well as I know how, to the very letter and spirit of your command."

"Didn't I tell you

to be

here in a minute, and have not you

remained

where you were? and didn't you say you would

here?"

"Yes, sir; and did not I do just what you told me to?"

"Why, no, you blockhead; I told you

to be

here."

"Well, I told you I would

there."

"You

was

not here."

"Nor did you expect I would

, if you have taught me to

speak

write

, and understand correctly."

"What do you mean, you saucy boy?"

"I mean to mind my master, and do what he tells me to."

"Why didn't you do so then?"

"I did."

"You didn't."

"I did."

"You lie, you insult me, you contradict me, you saucy fellow. You are not fit to be in school. I will punish you severely." And in a passion he starts for his ferrule, takes the boys hand, and bruises him badly; the honest little fellow all the while pleading innocence of any intended wrong.

In a short time they commence

parsing

this sentence: "It is necessary

to be

very particular in ascertaining the meaning of words before we use them." The master puts

to be

to the same boy. He says it is an

active verb

, infinitive mood.

"How is that? an

active

verb?"

"Yes, sir."

"No, it is not. It is a

neuter

verb."

"Begging your pardon, master, it is not. It is active."

"Have I got to punish you again so soon, you impudent fellow. You are not fit to be in school. I will inform your parents of your conduct."

"What have I done that is wrong?"

"You say

to be

is an

active

verb, when

tell you, and the

grammar

and

dictionary

tell you, it is

neuter

"What is a

neuter

verb, master?"

"It expresses 'neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being.' Have you forgotten it?"

"No, sir, I

thought

that was the case."

"What did you ask me for then?"

"Because I supposed you had found another meaning for it."

"To what do you allude, you troublesome fellow, you? I'll not bear your insults much longer."

"For what did you punish me so severely just now?"

"For disobeying my orders."

"What did you order me to do?"

To be

here in a minute."

"Well, did not I do what you told me?"

"No; you kept your seat, and did not come near me."

"Well, I thought and did just what you now tell me; that

to be

is a

neuter

verb, expressing no

action

, but

being

. I had a

state

being

, and promised to keep it, and did keep it, and you punished me for doing the very thing you told me to do!!"

The master looked down, shut up his book, and began to say that grammar is a "

dry

cold

, and

useless

" study, hardly worth the trouble of learning it.

I am

Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, who

, and who

was

, and who

to come, the Almighty."—

Rev. 1: 8.

If there is any action in maintaining eternal existence, by which all things were created and are upheld, it is expressed in the verbs

, and

was

God said, "Let there

light, and there

was

light;" or more properly rendered, "Light be, and light was."

Was there no action in setting the sun, moon and stars in the firmament, and in causing them to

send

forth the rays of light to

dispel

the surrounding darkness? If there was,

and

was

denote that action.

"You are commanded to be and

appear

before the court of common pleas," etc. A heavy penalty is imposed upon those who fail to comply with this citation—for neglecting to do what is expressed by the

neuter verb

Such cases might be multiplied without number, where this verb is correctly used by all who employ language, and correctly understood by all who are capable of knowing the meaning of words. But I think you must all be convinced of the truth of our propos

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Lectures on Language, as Particularly Connected with English Grammar.

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