Wild Beasts and Their Ways, Reminiscences of Europe, Asia, Africa and America. Volume 1

I was 30 miles distant when I heard of this tiger, and I immediately directed our course towards Bhundra. It was a pretty and interesting place, where the presence of rich hematite iron ore has from time immemorial induced a settlement of smelters. There are jungle-covered low hills upon which large trees are growing, yet all such important mounds are composed of refuse from furnaces, which were worked some hundred years ago.

We arrived there early in May during the hottest season, and the clear stream below the village, rushing over a rocky bed, was a sufficient attraction to entice the animals from a great distance. This would account for the permanent residence of tigers.

The headman was a Thakur, a person of importance, and, as our camp had been sent forward on the previous day, we found everything in readiness upon our arrival; the Thakur and his people were in attendance.

After the usual salutations, I inquired concerning the celebrated tiger:

" How long was it since it had been heard of?"

The Thakur placidly inquired of our attendant, and I was informed that three days had elapsed since it killed the last cow; it would therefore in all probability kill another animal to-morrow. There was no excitement visible, but the natives spoke of the tiger as coolly and as unconcernedly as though it had been the postman.

My shikari was present, and I ordered him to tie up a good large buffalo, in prime condition, as the tiger was in the habit of selecting the best cattle for attack. After some delay, an excellent buffalo was brought for inspection, about sixteen months old, in fine condition, and there was little doubt that the tiger would attack, as the period had arrived when they might expect a kill.

The Thakur knew the exact position for the buffalo as bait, and he coolly assured me that the tiger would certainly kill, and that on the following day I should as certainly get a shot, but that the bullet would either fall from the hide, or in some way miss the object. He declared that upon several occasions he had himself obtained a shot, like everybody else, but it was useless, therefore he had long since ceased to take the trouble. This was rather interesting, and added to the excitement.

At daybreak on the following morning my eager shikari with several natives arrived, with news that the buffalo was killed and dragged into a dry bed of a rocky nullah within the jungle; and from the high bank they had seen the tiger devouring the hind-quarters. This was satisfactory, although I was afraid that the tiger might have been disturbed by the inquisitiveness of the people; however, they laughed at the suggestion, and the beaters being ready, we sallied out to make a drive for a hopeless beast that was possessed by the devil.

The natives had been accustomed for so many years to act as beaters for this well-known animal that they had not the slightest nervousness; they knew the ground thoroughly, and the old mucharns, which had been vainly occupied so often, had simply been strengthened, but were ready in their original positions.

We had a large force of men, and several shikaris of long experience in the locality; it was accordingly a wise course to remain silent, as the people would have been confused by unnecessary orders.

Having left the line of men in position, we were taken about a mile in advance. I had given my shikari a double-barrelled gun, and I ordered him to take his stand as instructed by the natives; he accordingly disappeared, I knew not where. We entered the jungle, and presently descended the face of a small hill; then crossing a nullah, I was introduced to my mucharn; this was arranged upon a large tree which grew exactly upon the margin, and commanded not only the deep nullah beneath, but two other smaller nullahs which it met at right angles only a few paces distant. This looked well, as the tiger would probably slink along these secluded watercourses, in which case I should obtain a splendid shot. I climbed from the back of my steady elephant into the lofty perch; the people and animals left me to watch, squatted in a most uncomfortable position, as at that time I had not invented my charming turnstool.

At least an hour passed before I even heard the beaters. At length, amidst the cooing of countless doves, I detected the distant thud, thud of a tom-tom, and then the confused sound of many excited voices.

A few peacocks ran across the nullah; then a small jungle-sheep made the dead leaves rattle as it dashed wildly past; and almost immediately I heard a quick double shot about 200 yards upon my left.

I knew this must be my shikari, Sheik Jhan, and I felt sure that he had missed, as the two shots were in such rapid succession. If the first had struck the object, the second would not have been fired so quickly; if the first had missed, the exceeding quickness of the second shot would suggest confusion.

After waiting at least ten minutes without a sound of any animal, I whistled for the elephant, and descending from my post, I rode towards the position of Sheik Jhan.

A crowd of beaters were assembled, some of whom were engaged in searching for the bullets which he had fired, both of which had missed the tiger when within 12 yards' distance, although marching slowly over the sands and rocks in the bed of a large river; the natives were digging with pointed sticks into a grassy mound of sand.

Sheik Jhan described that an immense tiger had quietly passed close to him, but that no doubt it had a devil, as neither bullet had taken the least effect.

This was the customary termination; therefore no other course was left than to return to camp, the result having verified the prediction of the natives.

We now steered direct for the carcase of the buffalo, about 1 1/4 mile distant. Upon our arrival in the rocky bed of a dry river, where the smell of the tiger was extremely strong, we found the remains of the buffalo, a small portion of which had been eaten; I was assured by those who knew the habits of this tiger that it would return during the night, and that upon the following morning we should certainly obtain another shot.

I amused myself during the day by visiting the various smelting furnaces, all of which were upon a small scale, although numerous, and the method pursued was the same which I have found invariable among savage people. This consists in strong bellows worked by hand, the draught being sustained by continual relief of blowers, while the furnaces are constructed of clay, in the centre of which a small hole contains about a bushel of finely broken ore. Some powdered limestone was used as a flux, and the produce of a hard day's work, with five or six men employed, was about 15 lbs. of iron of the finest quality. This was never actually in a fluid molten state, but it was reduced when at white heat to a soft spongy mass resembling half-melted wax; it was then alternately hammered and again subjected to a white heat, until it arrived at the required degree of purity. The fuel was charcoal prepared from some special wood.

In the evening I pondered over the failure of Sheik Jhan, who declared that the tiger had taken him by surprise, as it had appeared while the beaters were so far distant that he could only just distinguish their voices. I came to the conclusion that this was the reason which explained the general escape of this wary animal, as it moved forward directly that the line of beaters entered the jungle, instead of advancing in the usual manner almost at the end of the beat. The sudden apparition of the tiger before it was expected would probably startle the gunner, who by firing in a hurry would in many instances entail a miss. Having well considered the matter, I determined to make myself more comfortable on the morrow, by padding the mucharn with the quilted pad of the riding elephant, and by sitting astride a tightly bound bundle of mats.

I would not allow any person to visit the carcase on the following morning, as I accepted the natives' assurance that the tiger would return to its kill; I gave orders that all beaters were to be in readiness, and we were to start together.

The morning arrived, and we started with a large force of nearly 200 men.

Upon approaching the spot where the carcase of the buffalo was left, I dismounted, and with only one man, I carefully inspected the position. The body had been dragged away. That was sufficient evidence, and I would not risk a disturbance of the jungle by advancing farther upon the tracks.

In order to maintain the most perfect silence, the beaters were kept at a considerable distance, and the line was to be formed only when a messenger should be sent back to say that the guns were already in position.

The native shikaris now assured me in the most positive manner that the tiger would certainly advance along the nullah, and would pass immediately beneath the tree upon which my mucharn of yesterday was placed.

Upon arrival at the tree I arranged the quilted pad and bundle of rugs in the mucharn, and having instructed my men to clear away a few overhanging creepers that in some places intercepted the line of sight along the nullah, I took my place, having carefully screened myself by intertwining a few green boughs to the height of 2 feet around my hiding-place.

I was comparatively in luxury upon the quilted mattress, and I waited with exemplary patience for the commencement of the beat in solitary quiet. A long time elapsed, as our messenger had to return about a mile before the line should receive orders to advance.

In the meanwhile I studied the ground minutely. I could see for 50 yards along the nullah, also there was a clear view where it joined the other approaches by which the tiger was expected. Exactly in front, on the other side the nullah beneath me, the jungle rose in a tolerably steep inclination upon a slope which continued for several hundred yards. If the tiger were to quit the nullah by which it would approach upon my left, it would probably cross over this hill to ensure a short cut, instead of continuing along the bottom of the nullah; this is frequently the habit of a tiger.

It was difficult to decide whether the beat had commenced, owing to the ceaseless cooing of the numerous doves, but presently a peacock flew into the tree upon my right, and almost immediately two peahens ran over the dead leaves, which made an exciting rustle in the quiet nullah. I felt sure that the beaters were advancing, as the peafowl were disturbed; I therefore kept in readiness, with rifle at full cock, as I felt sure that should the tiger exhibit himself, he would be far in advance of the approaching drive.

My ears were almost pricked with the strain of expectation, and I shortly heard the unmistakable beat of the native tom-tom.

Hardly had the sound impressed itself upon the ear, when a dull but heavy tread upon the brittle leaves which strewed the surface arrested my attention. This was repeated in so slow but regular a manner, that I felt sure it denoted the stealthy step of a tiger. I looked along the different nullahs, but could see nothing. The sound ceased for at least a minute, when once more the tread upon dead leaves decided me that the animal was somewhere not far distant. At this moment I raised my eyes from the nullahs in which he was expected, and I saw, through the intervening leafless mass of bushes upon the opposing slope, a dim outline of an enormous tiger, so indistinct that the figure resembled the fading appearance of a dissolving view. Slowly and stealthily the shadowy form advanced along the face of the slope, exactly crossing my line of sight. This was the "possessed of the devil" that had escaped during so many years, and I could not help thinking that, many persons would risk the shot in its present position, when the bullet must cut through a hundred twigs before it could reach the mark, and thus would probably be deflected. The tiger was now about 40 yards distant, and although the bushes were all leafless, there was one exception, which lay in the direct path the tiger was taking, a little upon my right; this was a very dense and large green bush called karoonda. Exactly to the right, upon the edge of this opaque screen, there was an open space about 9 or 10 feet wide, where a large rotten tree had been blown down; and should the tiger continue its present course it would pass the karoonda bush and cross over the clear opening. I resolved to wait; therefore, resting my left elbow upon my knee, I covered the shoulder of the unconscious tiger, and followed it with the .577 rifle carefully, resolved to exorcise the devil that had for so long protected it.

The shouts of the beaters were now heard distinctly, and the loud tom-tom sounded cheerfully as the line approached. Several times the tiger stopped, and turned its head to listen; then it disappeared from view behind the dense screen of the karoonda bush.

I lowered the rifle, to rest my arm for a moment. So long a time elapsed, that I was afraid the tiger had turned straight up the hill in a direct line with the bush, and thus lost to sight; I had almost come to this sad conclusion, when a magnificent head projected from the dark green bush into the bright light of the open space. For quite 15 seconds the animal thus stood with only the head exposed to view, turned half-way round to listen. I felt quite sure that I could have put a bullet through its brain; but I waited. Presently it emerged, a splendid form, and walked slowly across the open space. At the same moment as I touched the trigger, the tiger reared to its full height upon its hind legs, and with a roar that could have been heard at a couple of miles' distance it seized a small tree within its jaws, and then fell backwards; it gave one roll down the slope, and lay motionless. The devil was cast out.

I never saw such enthusiastic rejoicing as was occasioned by the death of this notorious tiger. The news ran like fire through the neighbouring villages before we had completed the packing of the animal upon Demoiselle. I had no means of weighing this tiger, but it was the heaviest I have ever seen, and although we had four poles beneath its body and a great number of willing men at the extremities, we had great difficulty in loading Demoiselle. By the time we had completed the operation we had a large crowd in attendance, all of whom followed the elephant upon the march towards our camp bearing the body of the tiger, which had been the scourge of their herds during so many years.

At least 300 women and children assembled to satisfy themselves that their enemy was really dead. The women kissed his feet and wiped their eyes with the tip of his tail; for what purpose could not be explained.

As this animal had lived in luxury, it was immensely fat, and we filled numerous chatties with this much-loved grease, to be used as ointment for rheumatic complaints. Unfortunately at that time I had no weighing machine, therefore it was impossible to judge the weight with accuracy, but we computed that the fat alone amounted to 70 lbs. avoirdupois. The tiger was certainly upwards of 500 lbs.

I found the '577 bullet of pure lead had entered exactly at the shoulder joint, which it had smashed to atoms, carrying splinters of bone through the lungs; passing through the ribs upon the opposite side, it had smashed the left shoulder, and was fixed beneath the skin, expanded like a mushroom.

There was no danger to any person employed in this hunt, but I have described it as an apt example of a cunning tiger, which escaped so many attempts upon its life that it was regarded as "uncanny."

My servant Thomas was quite delighted, as he had offered to bet that, "devil or no devil, his master's rifle would kill him, if he got a shot."

It has been generally admitted that the great variety of this species renders a classification almost impossible. Different countries adopt special names for the varieties which inhabit the localities; the leopard may be termed a panther, or cheetah, or wild cat, or even a jaguar, but it remains a leopard, differing in size, colour, and form of spots, but nevertheless a leopard. I shall therefore accept that name as including every variety. Although the genus Felis embraces in its nomenclature all the various representatives, from the lion (Felis Leo) to the ordinary domestic cat, the two principal examples of the race, the lion and tiger, are totally distinct from all others in their natural characters. The leopard is far more daring; at the same time it is infinitely more cautious, and difficult to discover.

No lion or tiger can ascend a tree unless the branches spring from within 4 or 5 feet of the ground; even then it would be contrary to the habits of the animal to attempt an ascent, although it might be possible under such favourable circumstances. A leopard will spring up a smooth-barked tree with the agility of a monkey; and there is a small species which almost lives among the branches (F. Macroscelis), from which it leaps upon its prey when passing unconsciously beneath.

An examination of the skins of leopards from various portions of the globe exhibits a striking difference in colouring and quality of fur. We find the snow leopard, which inhabits the Himalayahs and other lofty mountain ranges, with a fur of great value, deep and exceedingly close, while the spots are not determined as distinct black, but are shaded off by gray. This species is generally found at altitudes of from 8000 to 10,000 feet, or even higher. In Manchuria and the Corea there is a species which is unknown in India; this is a large animal, with a peculiarly rich and deep fur when killed during winter; the black spots are exceedingly large, and are formed in rings. A skin in my possession measures 7 ft. 9 in. in length; the tail is full, and the fur long; this is unusually beautiful, and it must have inhabited some lofty altitude where the temperature was generally moderate.

In Africa the leopards have almost invariably solid black spots, very close together upon the back, and becoming less crowded towards the belly and flanks. In Ceylon there are two distinct varieties-the large panther, generally about 7 ft. 6 in. in length, and a smaller leopard, which inhabits the mountains; in that island of misnomers they are both included in the name cheetah.

In India there are several varieties, and the largest is generally distinguished as a panther. There is no animal more commonly distributed in the world than the leopard, and no tropical country is free from this universal pest, unless an island formation has excluded its unwelcome presence.

It is difficult to determine the limit in the gradation of size at which this animal merges from the leopard into the wild cat. The varieties of cats are so numerous that I do not pretend to describe them; some are of sufficient importance to be classed among the smaller leopards, while others are no larger than the ordinary domestic cat. These vary through every shade of feline colouring, from spots to stripes, or to a fulvous brown similar to the tawny coat of a lioness; but, notwithstanding the difference in shades and spots, in cats and in the true leopard or panther the character is the same. They are all cunning, ferocious, and destructive, and I believe that far more cattle and goats are killed by leopards throughout the Indian Empire than by the usually accredited malefactor, the tiger.

The largest and most beautifully marked of the leopards is the jaguar of South America. This is the size of a small tigress, and is more heavily framed than any of the leopards; the head is especially large, and the animal might almost be termed a spotted tiger. The rings are peculiarly marked, and waved instead of being circular.

The cheetah or hunting leopard is a distinct species, and although classed among the leopards, it is altogether different, both in habits and appearance; the claws, although rather long, are not retractile, neither are they curved to the same extent as all others of the genus Felis, but they resemble somewhat the toe-nails of the dog. I shall accordingly separate this animal from the ordinary class of leopards, and give it a separate existence as an object of natural history.

The panther or larger variety of leopard is about 7 ft. 6 in. in length, and has been known to approach closely upon 8 feet, but this would be an unusual size. This animal is exceedingly powerful, with massive neck and strongly developed legs. The weight of a fine specimen would be from about 160 lbs. to 170 lbs. Although heavy, there is no animal more active, except the monkey, and even those wide-awake creatures are sometimes caught, by the ever-watchful panther. Stories are told of accidents that have occurred when the hunter has been pulled out of his tree, from which imaginary security he was watching for his expected game. It is impossible to deny such facts, although they are fortunately rare exceptions to the general rule; but there can be no doubt that a panther or leopard would attack upon many occasions when a tiger would prefer to slink away.

The habits of the leopard are invariably the same, it prowls stealthily about sunset and throughout the night in search of prey. It seizes by the throat and clings with tenacious claws to the animal's neck, until it succeeds either in breaking the spine, or in strangling its victim, should the bone resist its strength. When the animal is dead, the leopard never attacks the hind-quarters first, according to the custom of the tiger, but it tears the belly open, and drags out all the viscera, making its first meal upon the heart, lungs, liver, and the inside generally. It then retreats to some neighbouring hiding-place, and, if undisturbed, it will return to its prey a little after sundown on the following day.

It is far more difficult to circumvent a leopard than a tiger; the latter seldom or never looks upwards to the trees, therefore it does not perceive the hidden danger when the hunter is watching from his elevated post; but the leopard approaches its kill in the most wary and cautious manner, crouching occasionally, and examining every yard of the ground before it, at the same time scanning the overhanging boughs, which it so frequently seeks as a place of refuge. Upon many occasions, when the disappointed watcher imagines that the leopard has forsaken its kill, and that his patience will be unrewarded, the animal may be closely scanning him from the dense bush, under cover of which it was noiselessly approaching. In such a case the leopard would retreat as silently as it had advanced, and the watcher would return home from a fruitless vigil, under the impression that the leopard had never been within a mile of his position. One of the cleverest birds in creation is the ordinary crow of all tropical countries, which lives well by the exercise of its wits; nothing escapes the observation of this bird, and it is the first to discover the body of any animal that may have been killed. Should one or more of these birds be perched in the trees after sunset, near the carcase of an animal, and should it utter a "caw," when at that late hour it should have gone to roost, you may be assured that it has espied an approaching leopard, although it may be invisible to your own sight. The watcher should be careful not to move, but to redouble his vigilance in keeping a bright look-out, as the leopard will be equally upon its guard should it hear the cry of the warning crow.

There is very little sport afforded by this stealthy animal, and it is almost useless to organize a special hunt, as it is impossible to form any correct opinion respecting its locality after it has killed an animal. It may either be asleep in some distant ravine, or among the giant branches of some old tree, or beneath the rocks in some adjacent hill, or retired within a cave, but it has no special character or custom that would guide the hunter in arranging a beat according to the usual rules in the case of tigers. The leopard is merely a nuisance, and as such it should be treated as vermin, and exterminated if possible.

There are various forms of traps adopted by the natives in different countries; the most certain is the old-fashioned fall, similar upon a large scale to the common fall mouse-traps. These should be permanent fixtures in various portions of the jungles, and they should be baited whenever the tracks of a leopard may be discovered in the neighbourhood. The trap is formed by an oblong 10 feet by 3 of very strong and straight palisades, sunk 2 feet deep in the ground, and well pounded in with stones. These should be 5 feet high, with a fall door at one end. The top should be closely secured with heavy cross-pieces of parallel logs, well weighted with big stones.

The rear of this trap should be partitioned with bamboo cross-bars to form a cage, in which either a goat or a village dog should be tied as a living bait. Leopards are particularly fond of dogs, and the advantage of such a bait during the night consists in the certainty that the dog, finding itself alone in a strange place, will howl or bark, and thereby attract the leopard. The partition must be made of sufficient strength to protect the animal from attack. In Africa the natives form a trap by supporting the fallen trunk of a large tree in such a manner that it falls upon the leopard as it passes beneath to reach the bait. This is very effective in crushing the animal, but it is exceedingly dangerous, like all other African traps, as it would kill any person or other creature that should attempt to pass. Newera Ellia, the mountain sanatorium of Ceylon, was always well furnished with leopard-traps upon the permanent system, and the leopards, which were at one time a scourge of the neighbourhood, were considerably reduced. In 1846 I introduced English breeds of cattle and sheep, and started an agricultural settlement at that delightful mountain refuge from tropical heat; but the leopard became our greatest enemy, and although the cattle were well housed at night, and carefully watched when at pasture during the day, our losses were severe. I observed a peculiarity in the attacks by leopards; they seldom appeared upon a bright summer day, but during the rainy season, when the wind was howling across the plain, and driving the cold mist and rain, the cattle were off their guard, and generally turned their tails to the chilly blast. It was invariably during such weather that the leopards attacked. The watchman was probably wrapped in his blanket, wet, and shivering beneath a tree, instead of remaining on the alert, and this auspicious moment was selected by the leopard for a successful stalk upon the unsuspecting herd. I have frequently lost both cows and sheep, that were attacked and killed in broad daylight, and the leopards were generally of sufficient strength to break the neck of a full-grown beast. It should be remembered that the native cattle are much smaller than those of Europe, and I do not think it would be possible for a leopard to dislocate the neck of any English cow. An example occurred when unfortunately a valuable Ayrshire cow was attacked, and the leopard completely failed in the usual dexterous wrench, but the throat was so mangled that the cow died within a few days, although the leopard was driven away by the watchman almost immediately upon its onset.

The wounds from the claws of a leopard are exceedingly dangerous, as the animal is in the habit of feeding upon carcases some days after they have been killed; the flesh is at that time in an incipient stage of decomposition, and the claws, which are used to hold the flesh while it is torn by the teeth and jaws, become tainted and poisoned sufficiently to ensure gangrene by inoculation. The claws of all carnivora are five upon each of the fore feet, including the useful dew-claw, which is used as a thumb, and thoroughly secures the morsel while the animal is pulling and tearing away the muscles from the bones.

A wound from either a tiger or a leopard should be thoroughly syringed with cold water mixed with 1/35th part of carbolic acid, and this syringing process should be continued three times a day whenever the wound is dressed. Nothing should be done but to wrap the wound with linen rag soaked in the same solution, and keep it continually wetted.

The daring of a leopard during night is extraordinary. I have frequently during wet weather discovered in the early morning a regular beaten track in the soft earth, where a leopard has been prowling round and round a cattle-shed containing a herd of animals, vainly seeking for an entrance.

At one time my own blacksmith had a nocturnal adventure with a leopard which afforded a striking example of audacity. A native cow had a calf; this being her first-born, the mother was exceedingly vicious, and it was unsafe for a stranger to approach her, especially as her horns were unusually long, and pointed. The cattle-shed was scarped out of the hillside, and was within a few feet of the blacksmith's house. The roof was thatched. During the night, a leopard, which smelt the presence of the cow and calf, mounted the roof of the shed and proceeded to force an entrance by scratching through the thatch. The cow at the same time had detected the presence of the leopard, and, ever mindful of her calf, she stood ready to receive the intruder, with her sharp horns prepared for its appearance. It is supposed that upon the leopard's descent it was at once pinned to the ground, before it had time to make its spring.

The noise of a tremendous struggle aroused the blacksmith, who, with a lantern in his hand, opened the cattle-shed door and discovered the cow in a frantic state of rage, butting and tossing some large object to and fro, which evidently had lost all power of resistance. This was the leopard in the last gasp, having been run through the body by the ready horns of the courageous mother, whose little calf was nestled in a corner, unmindful of the maternal struggle.