Monument Future

Rosso Pantheon

Igneous rock (granite). Colour: dark red, scattered of light grey spots. Minerals: quartz, potash feldspar and plagioclase. Decay morphologies: scaling. Geology: “Serie del Canavese” (Permian-Triassic) including red and grey granites barren of micas. Quarry: few kilometres west of Valperga (Cuorgnè, Canavese, Torino province). Use: mainly polished slabs for façade cladding of residential and public buildings (Palazzo INA, portals and cladding in the porch, P. Portaluppi, 1936, Milan; Palazzo del Popolo d’Italia, balcony, G. Muzio 1938/42, Milan).

Sienite della Balma

Igneous rock (syenite). Colour: violet with black spots. Minerals: potash feldspar (orthoclase), plagioclase, amphibole (hornblende), biotite, piroxene (augite), quartz. Decay morphologies: scaling. Geology: Valle Cervo pluton (late-alpine, Oligocene) of the “Sesia-Lanzo Zone” (meta-morphic rocks, mainly micaschists). Quarry: near the village of Balma (valle del Cervo, Biella province). Use: polished slabs for cladding of residential and public buildings (Palazzo delle Colonne, façade made of very thick slabs with point chiseled surface in a T-shaped building with a porch of ten couples of shafts of Granito di Santo Stefano (Sardinia), G. Muzio – G. Greppi 1940, Milan).

Diorite nera di Anzola

The commercial name refers to a wrong petrographic classification: this is a igneous coarse grained rock (amphibole gabbro). Colour: black with some light grey spots. Minerals: plagioclase, hornblende. Decay morphologies: scaling. Geology: “Dioritico – kinzigitica” forma-tion of the “Ivrea-Verbano Zone”. Quarry: near the village of Anzola (val d’Ossola, Verbano province). Use: squared blocks and slabs (Banca Popolare, framework of openings, G. Greppi 1931, Milan); another use was for funerary purposes (Mausoleo Cadorna, M. Piacentini 1932, Pallanza; Cemeteries, Milan).

A stone, of the same colour but unlike origin (migmatite, Gneiss Valcondria), was quarried in val Chiavenna (Sondrio) and used in buildings.

Porfido monumentale

Igneous rock (rhyolitic ignimbrite). Colour: purple to dark red showing clear phenocrysts and some elliptic coarse-grained patches. Minerals: quartz and 43plagioclase. Decay morphologies: scaling. Geology: “Vulcaniti di Auccia” forma-tion (lower Permian). Quarry: near the pass of “Croce Domini” (Bienno, val Camonica – val Trompia, Brescia province). Use: thick slabs for cladding or slabs for flooring (Palazzo delle Colonne, polished thick slabs deeply carved by Giacomo Manzù to represent the “coats of arms” of the Lombard provinces).

Pietra di Zandobbio

Carbonate rock (dolomite). Colour: light pink tending to whitish with fine cracks featuring a typical network. Mineral: dolomite. Decay morphologies: surface erosion with widening of the crack network; sulphate skin formation. Geology: “Dolomia di Zandobbio” formation (Hettangian - Rhaetian) of the sedimentary series of Southern Alps. Quarry: near the villages of Zandobbio (Bergamo proince). Use: firstly during the Renaissance period (i. e. Cappella Colleoni, 1472–76; Biblioteca Angelo Maj, early 17th century); later (20th century) greatly imple-mented (Palazzo Littorio, cladding made of slabs with sawed face, A. Bergonzo 1940, Bergamo) and it was also spread in Milan for residential and public building.

Ceppo di Grè/Ceppo Poltragno

Clastic rock (diamictite with ocraceous matrix and calcite cement, clasts with angular corners). Colour: grey with some yellowish hues. Mineral: clasts of Dolomia principale (Haupt dolomit), size from 0.05 to 1.0 m. Decay morphologies: roughening on clasts and matrix, soot deposition on cavities, sulphate skins formation. Geology: “Complesso di Poltragno”, subdivided in two units (Unità di Poltragno and Unità di Gré), including slope deposits and alluvial deposits (lower and middle Pleistocene). Quarry: near Castro (Bergamo province), on the mountain rising above the north-western shore of lake Iseo. Use: slabs with sawed face for cladding of residential and public buildings (Casa dei Giornalisti, G. Muzio 1936, Milan; Palazzo Vittoria, E. Frisia 1935, Milan). Besides, this conglomerate is employed today (i. e. the façade cladding on the new building of Università Bocconi, Grafton architects 2008, Milan).

Pietra di Chiampo

Organic carbonate rock (shell limestone, biomicrite – packstone) wiht different varieties according to the colour and the texture (Rosa, Perla, Mandorlato, Paglierino). Colour: white to yellow to pink ground scattered with small light spots (shells of Foraminifera). Mineral: calcite. Decay morphologies: surface erosion, sulphate skin formation. Geology: “Calcari nummulitici” formation (Eocene) of the sedimentary series of the Western Venetia. Quarry: few kilometres near Chiampo, a village of the same valley (Vicenza province); limestone in alternating with basalt. Use: slabs for cladding (Palazzo Popolo d’Italia) or for flooring and stairs (Intendenza di Finanza, Genio Civile 1935, Milan).

Pietra di Aurisina

Organic carbonate rock (limestone, biosparite-wackestone) with different varieties according to the texture (Fiorito, Granitello). Colour: grey with evidence of shells of Bivalves (Rudistae). Mineral: calcite. Decay morphologies: surface erosion, sulphate skin formation. Geology: “Calcare di Aurisina” formation (upper Creta-ceous) of the Karst of Trieste. Quarry: near Aurisina (Nabrežina) in the north-western part of Karst (Trieste province). Use: early uses are documented in Roman architecture of north-eastern Italy and also in Milan (funerary stelae and blocks of urban walls); nevertheless the stone was used in the 20th century as blocks with point chiseled face (main body of Stazione Centrale, U. Stacchini 1912/31, Milan; former Banca Commerciale now Ragioneria Comunale, L. Beltrami 1913/23, Milan).

Other sedimentary rocks coming from Karst, with similar origin (organic limestone) and composition, were employed in 20th century architecture for flooring and cladding: Gabria Tomadio, Lipos, Repen.

Pietra di Finale

Organic carbonate rock (shell limestone; bio-sparite / packstone). Colour: pinkish to yellowish with some variegations with evidence of shells of Bivalves (Chlamys). Mineral: calcite. Decay morphologies: surface erosion; sulphate skin formation. Geology: “Calcare di Finale Ligure” formation (lower 44Miocene) of post-orogenetic deposits of the “Bacino del Finalese”. Quarry: near Orco-Feglino, few kilometres north of Finale Ligure (Savona). Use: thick point chiseled slabs mainly employed for cladding (Università L. Bocconi, G. Pagano 1941, Milan; Palazzo del Toro, E. Lancia 1939, Milan).

Rosso Amiata

Nodular carbonate rock with ammonite shells (limestone, biomicrite). Colour: dark red with white veins and pink shades. Minerals: calcite, haematite. Decay morphologies: surface erosion, sulphate skin formation, chromatic alteration. Geology: “Calcare ammonitifero” formation (lower Lias) of the non-metamorphic series of Tuscany. Quarry: south of Roccalbegna (Grosseto province). Use: polished slabs mainly for flooring in residential and public buildings (Casa Wassermann, a four-storeys urban residence with an accurate choice of coloured stones for flooring, P. Portaluppi 1934, Milan).

Portasanta di Caldana

Carbonate rock (pseudo-breccia, limestone). Colour: red to purple with white, purple or pink irregular spots and very thin grey or purple veins. Mineral: calcite. Decay morphologies: surface erosion, sulphate skin formation, chromatic alte-ration. Geology: “Calcare mas-siccio” formation (Hettangian, lower Lias) of the non-metamorphic series of Tuscany. Quarry: Caldana (south of Gavorrano, Grosseto province). Use: polished slabs mainly for flooring in residential buildings together with other coloured marbles, Casa Wassermann). A significant use is displayed on the great staircases of Milan’s Stazione Centrale (U. Stacchini 1912/31): the big shafts are made assembling moulded pieces of curvilinear shape and pieces of fluted shape.

Travertino di Rapolano

Carbonate stone with spongy appearance. Colour: creamy-white or yellowish; Mineral: calcite. Decay morphologies: roughening, sulphate skin formation, soot deposits in the cavities. Geology: carbonate deposition from hot springs (Upper Pleistocene). Quarry: near Serre di Rapolano, east of Sienna (Tuscany). Use: the stone was taken in great consideration during the Thirties as blocks and thick slabs with sawed face for cladding (Main Atrium of the Stazione Centrale; Ca’ Brütta, lower part of façades, G. Muzio 1922; Palazzo della Borsa, colonnaded façade, P. Mezzanotte 1932, Milan). This stone is very similar to Travertino romano (Lapis Tiburtinus, coming from Tivoli-Guidonia, Rome), largely used in ancient Rome and by Baroque architects, later (since the third decade of 20th century) spread in the whole Italian territory.

Verde Alpi

Metamorpihc rock (ophicalcite). Colour: dark green colour with several light green elements and a large grid of white calcitic veins. Minerals: serpentine, calcite and magnetite. Decay morphologies: roughening, chromatic alteration. Geology: “Unità Ofiolitiche dello Chenaillet” (Jurassic). Quarry: near Cesana Torinese in the valle di Susa, near the French border (Torino province). Use: mainly polished slabs for flooring (Casa Wassermann).

Other ophicalcites (Verde Champ de Praz, Verde Issorie), with similar texture and composition and quarried in the eastern part of Valle d’Aosta (Chatillon), were also largely employed for flooring in the 20th century architecture.

Rosso di Lèvanto

Metamorphic rock (ophicalcite). Colour: dark red ground with very irregular white calcitic veins (a variety shows a dark green ground instead of red). Minerals: serpentine, calcite. Decay morphologies: roughening, chromatic alteration. Geology: “Ofioliti liguri”, a group including serpentinite, serpentinized peridotite, gabbro euphotide, diabase and ophicalcite (Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous). Quarry: spread along the coast of Eastern Liguria (Lévanto, Bonassola etc. La Spezia province). Use: mainly polished slabs for cladding, moulded elements were also employed as jambs and lintel in portals and doors (Palazzo di Giustizia, flooring).

Verde Roja

Metamorphic rock (clayey schist, easily divisible into slabs). Colour: green with darker silicate veins. Minerals: quartz, mica, chlorite. 45Decay morphologies: scaling. Geology: “Scisti gneiss-sici” formation (Permian). Quarry: upper valley of the river Roja (Colle di Tenda) a former Italian territory assigned to France (dép. Alpes Maritimes) after the WWII. Use: mainly unpolished slabs for cladding or flooring (Casa Fiocchi, cladding, M. Fiocchi 1925 and Stazione Centrale, flooring together with other coloured stones, Milan).

Marmo di Valle Strona

Regional metamorphic rock (marble, coarse grain-size). Colour: grey with darker veins. Minerals: calcite, muscovite. Decay morpho-logies: disaggregation, sulphate skin formation. Geology: lenses in the “Dioritico-kinzigitica” formation of the “Ivrea-Verbano Zone”, spread from Valle Strona (Piedmont) to Canton Ticino (Switzerland). Quarry: near the village of Sambughetto (valle Strona, Verbano province). Use: mainly polished slabs for cladding (Palazzo di Giustizia, façades totally coated with this marble). It is worth to note the use of this marble in Naples, very far from the quarry site: Palazzo delle Poste (cladding of the curved façade, G. Vaccaro 1936); Banco di Napoli (cladding of the main hall, M. Piacentini 1940).

Marmo di Lasa

Regional metamorphic rock (marble, medium to fine grain-size). Colour: white with bands of various colours (grey to black due to graphite; green to chlorite; pink to zoisite); sometimes groups of little elongate black spots with shaded rims are present and an appropriate cut may produce a particular graphic effect (called Fantastico). Minerals: calcite; graphite, chlorite and zoisite. Decay morphologies: surface erosion, sulphate skin formation. Geology: Laas Unit (micaschist, banded paragneiss and marble) of Ortles-Campo Nappe, Austro-Alpine System (Pre-Permian metamorphic Basement). Quarry: above the village of Lasa-Laas (val Venosta-Vinschgau, Bolzano-Bozen province), the most important one (Weisswasser) was located at an altitude of 1,600 metres and the marble came down the hill using a incline railway. Use: mainly polished slabs for cladding; in some cases, the slabs are disposed in “open book style” (Casa Rustici, G. Terragni 1935, Milan; Torre Rasini, E. Lancia and G. Ponti 1934, Milan).

Fior di pesco carnico

Low grade metamorphosed crystalline limestone (marble, fine grain-size). Colour: light grey ground sometimes with pinkish or purplish spots and coarse grained veins. Mineral: calcite, opaque. Decay morphologies: surface erosion, sulphate skin formation. Geology: limestone of organic origin (Devonian) of the “Paleozoico carnico”. Quarry: near Pierabec, north of Forni Avoltri (Udine province). Use: mainly polished slabs for cladding (Palazzo della Provincia, atrium, G. Muzio 1942, Milan). Other building stones, coming from the same area in the north-western corner of this province, were also used in the 20th century architecture (Rosso Porfirico, upper Jurassic of Verzegnis or Persichino, upper Devonian of Timau).

Calacata and Cipollino

Regional metamorphic rock (calcite marble, very fine grain-size). Different varieties of marble are distinguished, mainly for colour and arrangement of the veins. Colour: white ground with gold-yellowish irregular veins (Calacata), green or white ground with undulating bands of light to dark green (Cipollino). Mineral: calcite. Decay morphologies: disaggregation, cracking, sulphate skin formation. Geology: “Autoctono toscano metamorfico” made of different epimetamorphic formations from Carboniferous to Paleogene; in particular these marbles are referred to “Cipollini” (lower Cretaceous – Oligocene). Quarry: different sites of Apuanian Alps according to the varieties. Calacata: Carrara district; Cipollino: Versilia – Lucca province, Cardoso and Arni districts.

Use: mainly polished slabs for façade cladding (Cipollino: former Palazzo della Montecatini, G. Ponti and A. Fornaroli 1936, Milan) of for interior cladding and for flooring (Calacata: Casa Wassermann).

Conclusion

The increase of the use of natural stones and marbles in the Thirties of 20th century, after two decades 46of “artificial stone”, was led by architects of the milanese school (Lancia, Muzio, Ponti, Portaluppi etc.). The use of natural stone was in agreement with the policy focused to improve the utilization of products of the Italian territory; this policy brought the opening of new quarries, but also brought the exploitation of ancient ones using up-to-date methods. The architects mainly paid attention to employ each stone for a specific purpose (cladding, floor, upright structural member, decoration etc.) according to its features (origin, mineralogy, texture, workability, resistance). The combined use of different stones in a single building was the obvious consequence of this option. In addition, the orientation of the cut of veined or brecciated blocks was accurately chosen in order to obtain slabs where the disposition of veins and colours was improved. Finally, in some cases, the stone elements were designed and manufactured to be exactly set only in one particular position of the whole building.

References

Biondelli D., Bugini R., Folli L., Saltari V. 2004a. I materiali del liberty a Milano. In: Biscontin G, Driussi G (eds) Architettura e materiali del Novecento. Arcadia, pp 27–36.

Biondelli D., Bugini R., Folli L., Saltari V. 2004b. I materiali di Piero Portaluppi. In: Biscontin G, Driussi G (eds.) Architettura e materiali del Novecento. Arcadia, pp 37–48.

Gramigna G., Mazza S. 2001. Milano – Un secolo di architettura milanese. Hoepli, p. 597.

Grandi M., Pracchi A. 1980. Milano – Guida all’architettura moderna. Zanichelli, p. 421.

ISPRA Istituto Superiore Protezione e Ricerca Ambientale 2012. Cartografia Geologica d’Italia scala 1:50000. http://www.ispra.it.

ISPRA Istituto Superiore Protezione e Ricerca Ambientale 1976. Cartografia Geologica d’Italia scala 1:100000. http://www.ispra.it.

Peverelli G. (ed.) 1939. Atti Convegno Nazionale presso Mostra Autarchica del Minerale Italiano. Il marmo, p. 127.

Peverelli G., Squarzina F. (eds.) 1939. Marmi Italiani. Federazione Fascista Industriali, p. 156.

Pieri M. 1966. Marmologia. Hoepli, p. 693.

Pierini O. S., Isastia A. 2017. Case milanesi 1923– 1973. Hoepli, p. 512.

47

CHARACTERIZATION AND DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS OF RUMELIFENERI FORTRESS IN ISTANBUL

Kadir Ekinci, Ahsen Karagöl, Gulberk G. Küçükosmanoğlu, Isil Polat Pekmezci

IN: SIEGESMUND, S. & MIDDENDORF, B. (EDS.): MONUMENT FUTURE: DECAY AND CONSERVATION OF STONE.

– PROCEEDINGS OF THE 14TH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON THE DETERIORATION AND CONSERVATION OF STONE –

VOLUME I AND VOLUME II. MITTELDEUTSCHER VERLAG 2020.

Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

Abstract

The historic fortresses and bastions that constitute the defense system of Bosporus, have ceased to be used by military units after losing their strategic importance in time and later they have been abandoned. Rumelifeneri Fortress which is a part of this defense system dates back to the 18th century. Today the most prominent problems of the fortress are; the ongoing process of deterioration caused by environmental impacts, due to its location by the sea and the uncontrolled influx of visitors. In terms of the study, to make a complete description of deterioration types, firstly a deterioration mapping is prepared. Samples were taken from different parts of the structure and chemical, physical and petrographic analyses were conducted in order to analyze the characterization of the original materials and types and degrees of deterioration. As a result of the analyses, the types and degrees of deterioration observed in building stone basaltic andesites, the main building material of the structure, were identified and classified. The characterization of the mortars and plasters are also completed; such as binder, aggregate ratios and the aggregate size distribution and the types of the aggregates. According to these results, suggestions and interventions have been developed for the parts of the structure that should be primarily conserved. This study aims to draw attention to these structures which are an important part of the historical and cultural heritage of Eurasia, by analizing characterization and deterioration of materials of Rumelifeneri Fortress.

Keywords: Cultural Heritage, Deterioration of Igneous Rock, Military Architecture, Mortar Characterization, Stone Conservation, Waterfront Fortresses