Hence the inhabitants of this Province are men who possess much native freedom in their manners. This, from their veneration to their King makes them faithful subjects and good citizens, not blindly passive, but from affection adhering to that Government under which they drew their first breath and under which they have been reared.
In noticing the state of religion in this Province, it may not be amiss to observe that the old inhabitants who came originally from New-England, where the genius of their church government was republican, were generally Calvinistic in their modes and doctrine; while the loyalists and others who came to the country in 1783, were generally Churchmen, Quakers, or Methodists. The Emigrants who have come since that period include all the above denominations.
The Church of England is in a flourishing state in this Province; there are nineteen Clergymen belonging to the establishment who are under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Nova-Scotia. Many of them have handsome churches with numerous congregations. Two of them are employed as Itinerants for the vacant districts of the Province, and several of the others serve two or more Parishes – An Ecclesiastical Commissary has the superintendence of the whole.
The Catholics have a few Chapels and appear to be on the increase. Their congregations are chiefly composed of Emigrant Irish, French, and Indians. – There are six Clergymen in the Province, some of whom are settled and others are employed as Missionaries among the scattered French and Indians.
There are but two Ministers of the Kirk of Scotland in the Province; they have handsome churches in Saint John and St. Andrews. There are however a number of Seceders from the Presbyterian form of Church Government, but all holding the doctrines of Calvin; several of them have commodious places of worship, and respectable congregations.
There are no places of worship belonging to the Quakers in this Province. There are however, a few of these primitive worshippers scattered through the country, who joining sincerity and honesty with plainness, are excellent members of society.
The Methodists are a numerous and respectable body of people. There are four Wesleyan Missionaries in this Province, with a number of Methodist Preachers, who although not immediately in connection with the Missionaries, adhere strictly to the old Methodist discipline and doctrine; and usually attend the Conferences, which are held once a year, either in Nova-Scotia or New-Brunswick; where the Missionaries for the two Provinces and the adjacent Islands assemble to arrange the different stations of their Preachers and regulate the affairs temporal and spiritual of that body. At these conferences young Preachers are admitted on trial, and probationers who have laboured four years in the Ministry to the satisfaction of the Conference, are taken into full connection.
The Baptists are the descendants of those followers of Mr. Whitfield, who formerly were very numerous under the denomination of New-Lights. About 25 or 30 years ago, a change in their forms and discipline took place among the leaders in Nova-Scotia, who adopted the mode of Baptizing only Adults, and the other tenets of the old Baptists whose name they also assumed. There are however a few of the New-Lights still scattered through the country, who carrying the levelling spirit into their religion, do not like order of any kind. They style themselves Baptists, Christians, &c. The Baptists on the contrary have a formula of faith comprised in seventeen articles, and are very strict in church government. They are a numerous class of people, and have several fine Chapels; they have however but few settled Ministers, not having as yet made sufficient provision to supply their members with a stated Ministry. They regulate their affairs by an annual association.
In general a desire for the christian Ministry is increasing in the Province. – Places of worship are erecting in most of the settlements, and such other provision for the support of the Gospel provided as the abilities of the settlers will admit.
The Government of New-Brunswick, like most of the British Colonies, is Royal and a miniature of the parent state. The other forms originally established in the Colonies and Plantations were charter and proprietory governments, which of late years have mostly given place to royal or monarchial governments, after the British model.
The Governor has a Council consisting of twelve Members, to assist him in the discharge of the executive duties of his station. These with the representatives from the different Counties constitute the Provincial Legislature.
The principal Courts established in the Province are the following. —
The Court of Chancery, which is a Prerogative Court, as well as a Court of Equity. The Lieutenant-Governor, or Commander-in-Chief is Chancellor, and the Justices of the Supreme Court Assignees.
The Court of Governor and Council, for hearing and determining Causes relating to Marriage and Divorce.
The Supreme Court of Judicature for the Province is held in Fredericton. It consists of the Chief Justice and three Assistant Judges. The Terms are the third Tuesday of February and May, and the second Tuesday of July and October. The Jurisdiction of this Court is very extensive, partaking of the power of the Courts of King's Bench, Exchequer, Common Pleas, and other Courts in England. All civil causes of importance and capital cases are determined in this Court. The present Chief Justice Saunders, who presides in this Court, the reader will observe, was a Member of the first Council in the Province. He has ever since been actively employed in the first stations in the country, which he has filled with the greatest ability and integrity. He is the only survivor capable of filling a public station among all those who bore a share in the public concerns of the Province on its first erection into a separate Government under Governor Carleton. The salary of the Chief Justice is £700 or £750 sterling. The other Justices have each £500 sterling per annum. The Justices, besides attending the Supreme Court at the Seat of Government, hold Circuit Courts in the different Counties.
The Inferior Court of Common Pleas consists of two, three, or more Justices, who preside occasionally. They are assisted by the Magistrates of the County. Here civil causes that do not involve property to a great amount are determined, as are also crimes and misdemeanors not affecting life. The Grand Inquest of the County attends this Court, when Bills of Indictment are found, which if involving matters above its Jurisdiction, are handed over to the Supreme Court for trial. Most of the Police of the Counties and Parishes is regulated by this Court, which is held half-yearly or quarterly in the several Counties, as the public business may require. Here the parish officers are appointed, parish and county taxes apportioned; the accounts from the different parishes audited; retailers and innkeepers licensed and regulated, &c. In short, this Court exercises in many respects the same powers in the several Counties, in regard to their internal police, as those that are exercised by the Mayor, Aldermen, and Commonalty of incorporated Cities.
Besides these Courts there is a summary mode of recovering debts under five pounds before a single Magistrate.
The Legislature of New-Brunswick, like most of the British Colonies, is a miniature of the British Parliament, consisting of the Lieutenant-Governor, the Council, and House of Representatives. The Governor represents the King. The Council form the upper House, in humble imitation of the House of Lords in England; and the Representatives from the different Counties forming the lower House, or House of Assembly. The number of Representatives for the several Counties is as follows: For the Counties of St. John, Westmorland, Charlotte, and York, four each; the Counties of King's, Queen's, Sunbury and Northumberland, two each; and two for the City of St. John, making in all twenty-six. This representation, the reader will observe, is very unequal. The County of Saint John, which includes the City, having two more members than the extensive County of York, which includes the Seat of Government; and the County of Sunbury, which is not as large as some parishes in the other counties, has as many members as the County of Northumberland, which comprises over one-third of the Province. It must indeed be admitted that Saint John and Sunbury are far better settled than Northumberland; but when we look at the great extent of the latter, the numerous settlements and great trade in that part of the Province, we must allow that the inhabitants of that part of the country have not an equal share of what may be considered the bulwark of liberty – namely, a fair representation. Six members at least, would not be out of proportion for that large County.
The Assembly sits in the winter at Fredericton: the sessions continue from six to seven weeks. Its chief business is in managing the provincial revenue, providing for schools, roads, &c. and making such laws as the state and trade of the Province may from time to time require. When laws are enacted that interfere with Acts of Parliament, they are transmitted to the King, with a suspending clause, and are not in force until they receive the royal approbation.
CHAPTER III.
Climate. Produce
As New-Brunswick lies in nearly the same parallel of latitude as Paris, Vienna, and other places in Europe, it would be natural to suppose the climate would be similar to those places; but it must be observed that cold is found to predominate on the continent of America. Hence in places under the same parallels, the differences between the old and new continents, with regard to cold, is very great, and this difference increases as you advance from the equator. This has been supposed by Dr. Robertson and others to arise from the western situation of America, and its approaching the pole nearer than Europe or Asia, and from the immense continent stretching from the St. Lawrence towards the pole and to the westward; and also from the enormous chain of mountains which extend to an unknown distance through that frozen region, covered with eternal snow and frost; over which the wind in its passage acquires that piercing keenness which is felt as far as the Gulf of Mexico, but more severely in the Canadas, New-Brunswick, and Nova-Scotia.
The prevailing winds, from October to April, are from the north and north-west, during most of which period the air, though frequently intensely keen, is clear and healthy. December is a temperate, pleasant winter month. In January the heavy falls of snow commence, and the drifting storms prevail chiefly in February and March; but these are not so frequent as formerly, and the major part of the winter is clear, hard weather.
In April the spring commences, and the winds are chiefly from the east north-east, which occasion dull, heavy weather. The rivers, lakes, and streams break up this month. As May advances, the weather becomes settled, and the mornings are uncommonly fine. The sun, which rises a little after four o'clock, diffuses his beams in full splendor through an unclouded sky. This is the usual month for sowing and planting on the high land. The intervale and low lands are generally later in drying, and are generally cultivated in June. The prevailing winds in the summer are from the south and south-west, veering at times to the eastward, but never continuing long to the north-west. In the first part of June the cold is considerable at night, frequently attended with frosts, particularly at the changes of the moon, which sometimes injure the early flowering fruits; and it is not till after the summer solstice that the night air loses its chilliness. This is no doubt occasioned by the snow, which lies undissolved in the deep recesses of the forest, as well as by the waters of the numerous rivers, lakes, &c. all which are swoln at this season; and by the cold acquired by the earth during the winter, which requires the full effect of the sun's influence, till late in June, before it is sufficiently heated. As soon as the earth is so thoroughly warmed that the nights lose their chill, vegetation becomes surprisingly rapid. In a few days, plants that appeared yellow and stunted, assume a deep green, and show a vigorous growth; and in less than a week, should a shower intervene, the face of the country exhibits the most luxurious vegetation, sufficient to astonish those who have only been familiar with temperate climates.
September is a pleasant month: the air is serene and pure. The rivers and streams are usually lower this month than at any other period during the year, and the dry weather frequently continues till late in October. Snow falls sometimes early in November, and lays till late in April; but this does not always hold. The rivers and lakes freeze up about the middle of this month, some sooner and others later, according to their situation. It is not uncommon to have frost in all the months in the year except July: for, as was observed before, it seldom escapes at the changes of the moon in June, and it frequently happens at the full in August, particularly on small streams. If, however, it passes that period, it generally keeps off till late in September. A stranger would naturally conclude from this account, that the season was too short and frosty for crops to come to maturity; but this is not the case. Roots come to perfection and grain gets ripe in most years; wheat being oftener hurt by the rust than the frost. The springs are indeed backward; but vegetation is exceeding rapid, and the autumns are uncommonly fine. The changes of the weather are frequently very sudden. Often in the space of two hours, (in the seasons of fall and spring,) changing from the mild temperature of September to the rigor of winter. This is chiefly occasioned by the wind: for while it blows from any of the points from the S.W. to the N.E. the air is mild; but when it veers from the N.E. to the N.W. it becomes cold and clear; and as it frequently shifts very suddenly, the transition from heat to cold is equally short. Even in the sultry month of July, whenever the wind changes for a few hours to the N.W. the air becomes cool, elastic, and invigorating. This, as was before noticed, is occasioned by its passing over the immense continent to the northwestward, and Hudson's Bay to the northward. On the contrary, when the winds are from the southward and S.E. they are mild and relaxing, retaining a portion of the heat acquired in the torrid zone. The changes, however, are not always so violent. The weather often both in winter and summer, continues for weeks with little alteration in the temperature, and changes imperceptibly. The coldest weather generally felt in the country, is on or near the full moon in January; for it is not till after the cold has had some time to exert its full influence and chill the earth, that the full rigor of winter is experienced. The same is the case with the greatest heat in summer, being in July, after the sun has for some time exerted his full influence on the earth. – From observations made by several persons, it is well understood that a gradual change has been taking place in the climate on the American continent within a century past. The change in this Province since 1783, has been very great – the summers having abated much of their former heat, and the winters grown proportionately milder. Neither are there such excessive droughts in summer, as formerly; the seasons being cooler, with more rain; neither does the snow accumulate to such a depth on the earth. This may arise not so much from a less quantity falling, as from the frequent thaws which now take place in the winter season.
For several years prior to 1816, the seasons had been growing gradually cooler – less warmth being felt on a mean in each succeeding year till 1816, when the cold appeared to have arrived at its acme; for in that year it appeared to predominate: from whatever cause has not yet been ascertained. Some ascribed it to spots on the sun's disc; others supposed that large masses of ice had been detached from the shores of Greenland, and floated so near America as to occasion the uncommon chill of the air, – with other conjectures of a like nature, totally unsatisfactory. For spots have frequently been observed on the sun, and it would require an immense quantity of ice to produce any permanent effect. – Whatever might have been the cause, it is certain the genial warmth of the sun appeared nearly lost: for when shining in meridian splendour in the months of June and July, a cold rigorous air was felt. There was a fall of snow, which was general over the Province and extended to the United States, on the 7th June, to the depth of three or four inches in the northern parts of the country. This was followed by severe frosts in every month in that year. The crops were very light: fields of wheat were totally destroyed. Even the never failing potatoe was chilled and did not yield half a crop.
After this year the seasons began slowly to improve; but the shock given to agriculture, by the failure of several crops, brought great distress on the poor, and gave a check to the prosperity of the Province. So great was the distress of the country, that the Legislature applied £6,000 to be laid out in seed and provisions, and advanced to such as were in want on a credit. For a few years back the seasons have been favorable to agriculture; but the extremes of heat and cold in winter and summer are not so great, and the rains are more generally diffused through the year than formerly.
I have been thus particular in noticing the changes of the seasons, as I think it would be a great advantage to the Province if a correct register of the weather was kept, and the changes of the seasons particularly attended to, as it would furnish data to guide the farmer in his crops, by sowing more of the hardy grains, such as oats, barley, peas, &c. as the seasons, (judging by a comparison with former years) was likely to be warm or frosty; and not running so much on Indian corn, which always requires hot seasons. Had this been attended to in the cold seasons, less distress would have been felt in the country, as oats, barley, &c. generally did well, when the other crops failed.
As I observed before, several causes have been assigned for the difference between the climate of Europe and America, by persons who have investigated that subject. But the causes of the alteration that has taken place in the seasons in North America, remain yet a desideratum with the learned. Whether the alteration is occasioned by the precession of the equinoxes, or by the position of our globe with the other planets, (for changes no doubt are taking place in the great system of the universe, which, though slow, must produce powerful effects,) or from whatever cause it may be, the effects are visible, and cannot reasonably be wholly ascribed to the improvement of the country, or any alteration that has taken place in it.
New-Brunswick appears to be but little liable to the great convulsions of nature, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, &c. There has been but one shock of an earthquake experienced by the present inhabitants since they have settled the country. This shock happened on the 22d May, 1817, at 25 minutes past three o'clock in the morning. The duration of the shock was about 45 seconds. It was attended with the usual rumbling noise, without thunder, the weather being very serene and pleasant. The appearances, however, usually indicating earthquakes, such as fiery meteors, the uncommon brilliancy of the aurora borealis, &c. had been frequent the winter preceding.
I shall now proceed to notice the principal grains, roots, and grasses cultivated in the Province, and give as correct an account of their produce, &c. as the imperfect state of the agriculture of the country will allow.
Wheat is sown from five pecks to two bushels to an acre, and yields from twelve to twenty-four bushels per acre. Twenty bushels is a good crop, on new land, although it sometimes produces more, when the soil is very rich and the season favourable. On old land the return is from ten to fifteen bushels per acre, the mean is about twelve. Rye is grown on inferior lands. It takes about the same quantity of seed to the acre, and gives much the same returns.
Oats are much cultivated in this country, and generally turn out a good crop. The quantity of seed is from two to three bushels, and the produce from twenty to thirty bushels per acre. Barley is not much cultivated, although it would do well as a substitute in frosty seasons.
Buckwheat is a grain that gives a large return for the quantity sown. It is raised on lands that are too poor to produce good crops of the other grains, and sown later in the season, so that the greatest summer heat may be past before the grain is formed in the ear; for should there be a few very hot days when the grain is in the milk, the crop would be destroyed. The same would be the case, if a slight frost should strike it in that stage. If, however, it escapes these casualties, to which it is liable, it turns out a good crop, yielding from forty to sixty bushels to an acre. There is a species of wild Buckwheat, which is a surer crop, but of an inferior quality.
Millet has lately been introduced into the Province. It is said to do well on most lands, but has not been much attended to.
Indian Corn or Maize, flourishes in high perfection on the intervales, which are generally composed of alluvial soil. It is usually planted in hills nearly four feet asunder. Five grains is the usual quantity for a hill. It is a plant that requires a light rich soil, old manure, and hot seasons; should these requisites concur, a good crop may be expected. It is usually hoed thrice, and produces from twenty-five to forty bushels per acre.
Pease are a hardy grain, and produce from ten to fifteen bushels to an acre.
Beans are usually set in drills; they thrive well on light sandy lands, but are not much cultivated in the country.
Among the ground crops or roots, the most valuable is the Potatoe – a root that can never be sufficiently prized, as affording one of the most productive and surest substitutes for bread of any known, and without which it would have been extremely difficult to have colonized these Provinces. This may be reckoned the surest crop, and is peculiarly well adapted to new countries, as it thrives best on new burnt land. The usual and simplest method of cultivating this root is by planting cuttings of it in hills, about three feet asunder. This method is peculiarly convenient on land newly cut down, as the seed is set with the hoe between the stumps and roots with which the ground is covered, and where the plough or harrow could be of no service. They are generally hoed once in the season, and turn out in the fall a large crop of clean, smooth potatoes, of a superior flavour to those grown on old lands. The produce is from 150 to 200 bushels from an acre; although they sometimes greatly exceed that quantity. – They are an excellent crop for improving new lands; for as the culture is all performed with the hoe or hack, the small roots of the stumps are destroyed in planting and digging; for wherever there is room to drop an eye, it never fails to vegetate, working under roots and around stones, so that in the autumn the farmer has frequently to cut away or dig under roots for his crop, which often exceeds his expectation. In some parts of the Province, where the lands have been long in cultivation, drilling is practised, and the labour chiefly performed with the plough and harrow; and of late the Irish method of setting them in beds has been introduced. There are many varieties of this root cultivated in the Province; but no attention has been paid to renewing the seed from the ball, which no doubt would improve the quality as well as the produce.
Several kinds of Turnips are cultivated in this Province; the best of which is the ruta-baga, or Swedish turnip. This is an excellent root and cultivated with great success, particularly on new lands. They differ from the common field turnip, being of a firm texture they keep the year round; while the common turnip turns soft and unfit for use after the winter sets in. They, however, answer a good purpose for early use and for cattle, being sown late in July, after the other crops are out of the way. The Swedish turnip is sown early in June. All the sowing in this country is broad-cast, the method of drilling being scarcely known.
The other roots are, beets, carrots, parsnips, onions, radishes, &c. which are chiefly cultivated in gardens. There are a variety of cabbages, sallads, cauliflowers, squashes, &c. which are also cultivated in the gardens with great success.
The principal grasses produced in the country, are white and red clover, timothy, lucerne, browntop, &c. Good uplands produce one and a half tons per acre, and the intervale from two to three tons. There are several species of wild grass, such as blue-joint, &c. found in meadows, in the woods, and along streams, which make very good food for young stock.
As no regular catalogue of the various species of indigenous plants has yet been made in this country, it would be useless to attempt anything like a correct, minute enumeration of them in this concise sketch. I shall, therefore, prosecute this part of the subject no farther, as I think the time is not far distant when this branch of the rural economy of the Province will be particularly attended to; and that the Societies which have lately been formed for that purpose, will not only develope and improve the native productions of the country, but introduce different species of exotics, as they find them answer the soil and climate.